Fight Over Pompeii

Nearly 2,000 years ago, the ancient Roman city of Pompeii was suddenly wiped off the map. It was the year 79 A.D., and the city’s residents had been experiencing frequent mild earthquakes for months. Quakes are common on Italy’s western coast, so people didn’t pay them much attention. Little did they know that the seismic activity was a warning. Mount Vesuvius—a large volcano east of the city—was about to blow its top. It would be one of the most violent eruptions in human history, killing an estimated 30,000 people.

Today, historians have a detailed account of what happened that fateful day, thanks to a Roman teenager named Pliny the Younger. The 17-year-old documented the eruption from the nearby city of Misenum. He described seeing a massive, gray cloud rising from Vesuvius’s peak. It reached 32 kilometers (20 miles) into the sky. Hours later, a pyroclastic flow of ash, rocks, and superheated gases rushed down the slopes of the volcano, engulfing the city. “It traveled at hurricane-like speeds and killed instantly,” says Christopher Kilburn, a volcanologist from the University College London in England who studies the region.

Nearly 2,000 years ago, the ancient Roman city of Pompeii was suddenly wiped off the map. It was the year 79 A.D. For months, people in the city had been feeling many mild earthquakes. Quakes are common on Italy’s western coast, so people didn’t pay much attention. They didn’t know that the seismic activity was a warning. A large volcano, Mount Vesuvius, sat east of the city. It was about to blow its top. This would be one of the most violent eruptions in human history, killing about 30,000 people.

What happened on that deadly day? Historians have a detailed account, thanks to a Roman teenager named Pliny the Younger. The 17-year-old wrote about the eruption from the nearby city of Misenum. He described what he saw. A huge, gray cloud rose from Vesuvius’s peak. It reached 32 kilometers (20 miles) into the sky. Hours later, a pyroclastic flow of ash, rocks, and superheated gases rushed down the volcano’s slopes. The flow swallowed the city. “It traveled at hurricane-like speeds and killed instantly,” says Christopher Kilburn. He’s a volcanologist from the University College London in England who studies the region.

In a matter of hours, the city was buried under 3 meters (10 feet) of ash and rock. Pompeii was accidentally rediscovered by construction workers in 1748. Since then, scientists have flocked there to learn more about the city, which was preserved beneath the volcanic debris. Archaeologists, who study human history, continue to excavate the site to uncover the remains of Vesuvius’s victims, their homes, and their belongings. Volcanologists also analyze the grounds surrounding the archaeological site. It contains layers of volcanic material from Vesuvius’s past eruptions, shedding light on its violent history.

Recently, though, these two groups of scientists have been at odds over Pompeii. To do their job, archaeologists dig to find ancient artifacts. But that disturbs the deposits volcanologists use to learn about the behavior of the still-active Vesuvius. Without this valuable soil, volcanologists say, they can’t best study when this monster will unleash its wrath again.

Within hours, the city was buried under 3 meters (10 feet) of ash and rock. Construction workers accidentally found Pompeii again in 1748. The city was preserved under the volcanic material. Since then, scientists have flocked there to learn more about Pompeii. Archaeologists study human history. They excavate the site to uncover the remains of Vesuvius’s victims, their homes, and their belongings. Volcanologists also study the grounds around the archaeological site. It contains layers of volcanic material from Vesuvius’s past eruptions. This material reveals its violent history.

But recently, these two groups of scientists have been at odds over Pompeii. To do their job, archaeologists dig for ancient artifacts. But that disturbs the volcanic deposits. Volcanologists use these deposits to learn how Vesuvius behaves. The volcano is still active. Volcanologists say that without this soil, they can’t best study when this monster will erupt again. 

One of the most remarkable things archaeologists have found are body-shaped cavities in the ash that buried Pompeii. They formed as victims of the disaster slowly decomposed. Excavators preserve these body-shaped voids by pouring plaster into the holes. Once it dries and hardens, they chip away at the ash to reveal statue-like casts of the victims.

To archaeologists, Pompeii’s true treasures are buried in the soil. But to volcanologists, the soil itself is worth more than gold. It holds the secrets of Vesuvius’s eruptions. Without these deposits, volcanologists can’t make discoveries that could help them understand when the next big blast will occur—and how to protect those living in the volcano’s shadow.

Archaeologists have found something amazing in Pompeii. The ash that buried the city contains body-shaped spaces. They formed as victims of the disaster slowly decayed. To preserve these body-shaped holes, the scientists pour plaster into them. They wait for the plaster to dry and harden. Then they chip away at the ash to reveal statue-like casts of the victims.

To archaeologists, Pompeii’s true treasures are buried in the soil. But to volcanologists, the soil itself is worth more than gold. It holds the secrets of Vesuvius’s eruptions. Volcanologists need these deposits to make new findings. This could help them understand when the next big blast will happen. It could also show how to protect those living near the volcano.  

For example, scientists weren’t sure exactly what killed Pompeii’s citizens until recently. They theorized that most of the victims were either suffocated by volcanic gases and falling ash or pummeled by chunks of pumice. These small volcanic rocks formed when lava was ejected by Vesuvius.

Then in 2010, volcanologists created a computer simulation based on soil samples they’d analyzed. It identified six different pyroclastic waves released by Vesuvius during its 79 A.D. eruption. The researchers combined this information with a chemical analysis of victims’ remains and artifacts. That helped them determine that the pyroclastic surges reached temperatures of 300°C (572°F)—hot enough to kill a person in a fraction of a second.

These waves left little evidence behind. Their deposits were only about 3 centimeters (1 inch) thick, hidden within other layers of volcanic soil. Without this evidence, we wouldn’t know the dangers that modern-day populations could face during the next eruption.

For example, what killed Pompeii’s citizens? Scientists weren’t sure until recently. They thought that most of the victims died in one of two ways. Either volcanic gases and falling ash smothered them, or they got pounded with chunks of pumice. These are small volcanic rocks. They formed when lava shot out of Vesuvius.

Then volcanologists created a computer model in 2010. It was based on soil samples they’d studied. It showed that Vesuvius released six different pyroclastic waves during its 79 A.D. eruption. The researchers also did a chemical study of victims’ remains and artifacts. They combined all the data. It revealed that the pyroclastic surges were as hot as 300°C (572°F). That’s hot enough to kill a person in a fraction of a second.

These waves left little evidence behind. Their deposits were only about 3 centimeters (1 inch) thick. They were hidden between other layers of volcanic soil. This evidence shows what could happen to modern-day people during the next eruption. Without it, we wouldn’t know the dangers.

Today, about 700,000 people live in Vesuvius’s “red zone.” This area is considered to be at greatest risk and would be the first to be evacuated when the volcano next shows signs of an eruption (see Blast Area). A million more people live in the “yellow zone,” with lesser risk.

Why would anyone decide to live so close to this ticking time bomb? Past eruptions have made the soil in the area extremely fertile, so it’s ideal for farming. Tourists from around the world are also drawn to the beautiful region.

Today, about 700,000 people live in Vesuvius’s “red zone.” This area is thought to be at greatest risk. When the volcano shows signs of an eruption, this zone would be evacuated first (see Blast Area). A million more people live in the “yellow zone,” with lesser risk.

Vesuvius is a ticking time bomb. Why would anyone decide to live so close? Past eruptions have made the nearby soil extremely fertile, so it’s perfect for farming. Tourists from around the world also visit the beautiful area.

To help protect people visiting or living near Vesuvius, volcanologists analyze samples left behind by the eruption that destroyed Pompeii. By doing so, they can learn about the chemistry of rock spewed by the volcano. “That tells you what the magma [melted rock below Earth’s surface] must have been like before the eruption began,” explains Kilburn. If scientists detect a similar makeup in Vesuvius’s magma today, it might be a warning sign that the volcano is reawakening.

Studying the physical patterns and shapes of the deposits left behind by the deadly pyroclastic waves could reveal more about how they behaved as they rolled through the city. “To have this understanding, we need to be able to gather samples all the way through the volcanic deposits,” says Kilburn. But, he adds, if the soil making up these deposits is removed by archaeologists to excavate artifacts, there will be nothing left for volcanologists to study.

Volcanologists want to protect people visiting or living near Vesuvius. So they study samples from the eruption that destroyed Pompeii. This reveals the chemistry of rock shot from the volcano. “That tells you what the magma [melted rock below Earth’s surface] must have been like before the eruption began,” explains Kilburn. Scientists also study the chemistry of Vesuvius’s magma today. If they find a similar makeup, it might be a warning sign that the volcano is becoming active.

The deadly pyroclastic waves left behind deposits with physical patterns and shapes. These could reveal more about how the waves behaved as they rolled through the city. “To have this understanding, we need to be able to gather samples all the way through the volcanic deposits,” says Kilburn. But he has a concern. What if archaeologists remove the soil of these deposits to uncover artifacts? Then volcanologists will have nothing left to study, he says. 

Last summer, a letter penned by a group of volcanologists, including Kilburn, was published in the scientific journal Nature. It criticized the Great Pompeii Project for removing soil that could be used to learn more about the region’s past volcanic activity. “The volcanic deposits should be preserved and studied where they landed—otherwise, the information they contain about the eruption is lost,” the authors wrote.

Removing the soil, Kilburn adds, also takes away the potential to study it in the future when new technologies might be available to learn more about the deposits. But Ellis, the archaeologist, argues that despite removal of soil from atop the city, plenty remains for volcanologists to study. “As big as the excavation [at Pompeii] is, it’s still small compared with the amount of volcanic material that’s still there,” he says.

Currently, though, volcanologists don’t have permission to work within Pompeii. Ellis says that’s because rules laid out by the Italian government gave the Great Pompeii Project the rights to manage the site. Right now, its main objective is to safeguard the city’s remains from further damage after some of its ancient structures collapsed following years of exposure to the elements and poor maintenance.

Ellis explains that many scientists want access to Pompeii, making it increasingly difficult to make everyone happy. But, says Kilburn, “if we had more open collaboration, everyone would win.”

Last summer, the scientific journal Nature published a letter. It was written by a group of volcanologists, including Kilburn. It criticized the Great Pompeii Project for removing soil from the area. This soil could reveal more about past volcanic activity. “The volcanic deposits should be preserved and studied where they landed—otherwise, the information they contain about the eruption is lost,” the authors wrote.

Kilburn has another concern. If soil is removed, the chance to study it in the future is gone. That’s when new technologies might be ready to find out more about the deposits. But Ellis, the archaeologist, disagrees. He argues that soil is removed from the city, but plenty remains for volcanologists to study. “As big as the excavation [at Pompeii] is, it’s still small compared with the amount of volcanic material that’s still there,” he says.

But right now, volcanologists aren’t allowed to work within Pompeii. Ellis says that’s because of rules made by the Italian government. They gave the Great Pompeii Project the rights to manage the site. Right now, its main goal is to protect the city from further damage. Some of the ancient buildings collapsed after years of exposure to the weather and poor maintenance.

Ellis explains that many scientists want to study Pompeii. That makes it more and more difficult to make everyone happy. But, says Kilburn, “if we had more open collaboration, everyone would win.”